Examine the factors affecting the domestic division of labour and power relations between couples.
-Social values should be the first and major reason for the domestic division of labour and power relationships between couples especially in the past. Considering nuclear family as the dominant type of family,functionalists believe that the division roles of couples from which females stay at home,taking care of children and doing domestic work while males go out for jobs as expressive and instrumental roles helps the smooth running of society. Similarly,marxists think females provide the emotional support to the males of proletariats that can helps the maintenance of capitalist system as the normal running of society. Therefore,these views produce a fixed ideology of the roles between females and males that women also consider it's their reponsibility to do domestic work and child-care which is found by Oakley. Affected by these view,some policies tend to protect the males at the cost of females like 1979 Conservative government that it encouraged mothers to stay at home to do the take care of children and old people in order to make up for the reduced benefits to family. Besides,during the industrialisation,women were forced to go to labour market in the 20th century and gradually produced the clear separation of roles between couples which tend to cause asymmetrical form of family. Consequently,men is likely to earn more money and have financial power to control the family and make decisions. It can be proved by Mansfield&Collard that men tend to change jobs with higher salary after marriage and that men are likely to have finance control of family suggested by Vogler and Paul. Lastly,the change in education which welcome females and more available subjects also improve the quality of women and confidence.
However,with the changes of labour market,social policy,education and social values,women tend to have more rights with increasing financial independence and confidence.
Sunday, 19 April 2009
Saturday, 18 April 2009
Essays!!! _ 1Examine the reasons for changes in the position of children in the family and society.
Examine the reasons for changes in the position of children in the family and society.
-As we can see,there is a clear trend that children are concerned by more and more people nowadays no matter by the family itself or the whole society. For example,there are a lots of laws which concentrate on the rights of children since 1989 with the Child Support Act.
In fact,we can value the change by the changes of society and the corresponding changes in family structure.
Indicated by the sociologist-Aries' study on the paintings,childhood didn't exist before the Medieval that children shared work and production with adults as a family unit until the 16th century,when upper class family began to send the children to the school. Furthermore,with the arrival of industrialisation,nuclear family gradually replaced extended family which suits more the requirement of the charactersitics like geographic mobility and therefore,parents have the chance to concentrate more on their children and realise the special needs of them. Besides,as the increasing standards of labour market,children didn't have the required skill and were left at home which asked parents to know the importance of education and training to children. Nextly,since the increasing average income of the world,people can afford to buy more things to their children and send them to receive education. What's more, the most important cause is the increasing competition of each country that the government should improve the productive capacity by increasing their human capital and more concerns on them . Consequently,Child Support Act firstly introduced the rights of children and other policies come into implement. For instance, parents have to continue to pay the fee to bring their children up after separation and divorce and the introduction of compulsory education with more types of schools to suit different students. Recent to these years,children problems such as domestic violence to the children also appeal to the concerns of the society to care more for the mental need of children.
get
-As we can see,there is a clear trend that children are concerned by more and more people nowadays no matter by the family itself or the whole society. For example,there are a lots of laws which concentrate on the rights of children since 1989 with the Child Support Act.
In fact,we can value the change by the changes of society and the corresponding changes in family structure.
Indicated by the sociologist-Aries' study on the paintings,childhood didn't exist before the Medieval that children shared work and production with adults as a family unit until the 16th century,when upper class family began to send the children to the school. Furthermore,with the arrival of industrialisation,nuclear family gradually replaced extended family which suits more the requirement of the charactersitics like geographic mobility and therefore,parents have the chance to concentrate more on their children and realise the special needs of them. Besides,as the increasing standards of labour market,children didn't have the required skill and were left at home which asked parents to know the importance of education and training to children. Nextly,since the increasing average income of the world,people can afford to buy more things to their children and send them to receive education. What's more, the most important cause is the increasing competition of each country that the government should improve the productive capacity by increasing their human capital and more concerns on them . Consequently,Child Support Act firstly introduced the rights of children and other policies come into implement. For instance, parents have to continue to pay the fee to bring their children up after separation and divorce and the introduction of compulsory education with more types of schools to suit different students. Recent to these years,children problems such as domestic violence to the children also appeal to the concerns of the society to care more for the mental need of children.
get
Thursday, 16 April 2009
SomethingSomething~(daily)
Economy of scale(I found it in the revision manual which i always forgot):
Economies of scale is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit cost as the size of a facility, or scale, increases which is illustrated on the diagram above.Diseconomies of scale are the opposite. Economies of scale may be utilized by any size firm expanding its scale of operation. The common ones are purchasing, managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), and marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.
It's always a purpose of firms investment with technical advances. Besides,when we consider the importance of investment,we should think about 3c-capacity,costs,competitiveness.
Wednesday, 15 April 2009
Continue!! (I love family!~)
A number of changes have taken place, such as the rise in the number of same-sex couples and of lone parents. these have resulted in families becoming much more diverse.However Somerville (2000) argues that these changes are exaggerated. The apparent diversity of family life is based on a snapshot at any one time and, if a life cycle approach is taken, many people have a fairly conventional experience of the family.
e) Use material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm. Tranditionally,nuclear family,which is consist of a married couple and two children who are the couple's biological offspring, is considered as universal which fits every family well by Murdock and also supported by the New Right as the Bedrock of Society. However,from the item 2B,we can see there is a rise in the number of lesbian,gay family and lone parents which is against the nuclear family. Furthermore,Susan MacRae made an introduction in 1999 that Britain today is a more complex society than before, with great family diversity: one-person family,cohabitation,lone-parent family and same-sex couples. In fact,we can see it as a result of changes in society of social construction,social value and social policy. Firstly,since the society converted to industrial society, the labour market is expanded and the types of jobs have changed with an increase number of service jobs which requires more women to work. Therefore,women were changing their attitudes and increasingly aimed for occupations which is found by Francis&Skelton. With the increasing independence and confidence suggested by Sharpe,they have the ability to divorce or bring up children by themselves. Besides,as Allan and Crow says,the improving technology in health care as contraception makes couples possible to cohabit without the fears of having babies which may encourages the number of cohabitation. Nextly,divorce becomes more socially acceptable and the increasing divorce rates led the normalisation of divorce as a good means to deal with unhappy marriage indicated by Cockett&Tripp. Some people argued that a decilne in nuclear family meaned a breakdown of tranditional values on marriage and love. But in fact,because some couples expect too much on the marriage,they are less likely to bear the unhappiness and easy to divorce or choose cohabitation as the alternative from the view of Fletcher&Parsons. Another similar view which see overloading marriage lead to the breakdown of nuclear family because of the over-dependence and too much demand of emotion support is cited by Coontz.What's more,the changes of social policy also affect the family structure very much. For example,government provides lots of welfare benefits to single mothers which encourages women to divorce. Besides,the simplified procedure of divorce made it easier and quicker to separate from the partners such as the Divorce Reform Act. Lastly,both the Act of Parliament in 2002 which made it legal for same-sex couples to adopt children and the Civil Partnership Act in UK in 2005 which gave identical rights to same-sex couples to marry increase the number of same-sex family. However,although there is an increasing trend in family diversity and it's supported by Postmodernest like Stacey who viewed it as suitable to the changing society to meet the demands of different kinds of people,the changes may have been exaggerated suggested by Somevill in the item B and some functionalists like Chester. Even though the increase in family types is obvious,the nuclear family remains the dominant family structure. Furthermore,Chester pointed out that the nuclear family is becoming more symmetrical (Willmott&Young) which fits the society better than before.
e) Use material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm. Tranditionally,nuclear family,which is consist of a married couple and two children who are the couple's biological offspring, is considered as universal which fits every family well by Murdock and also supported by the New Right as the Bedrock of Society. However,from the item 2B,we can see there is a rise in the number of lesbian,gay family and lone parents which is against the nuclear family. Furthermore,Susan MacRae made an introduction in 1999 that Britain today is a more complex society than before, with great family diversity: one-person family,cohabitation,lone-parent family and same-sex couples. In fact,we can see it as a result of changes in society of social construction,social value and social policy. Firstly,since the society converted to industrial society, the labour market is expanded and the types of jobs have changed with an increase number of service jobs which requires more women to work. Therefore,women were changing their attitudes and increasingly aimed for occupations which is found by Francis&Skelton. With the increasing independence and confidence suggested by Sharpe,they have the ability to divorce or bring up children by themselves. Besides,as Allan and Crow says,the improving technology in health care as contraception makes couples possible to cohabit without the fears of having babies which may encourages the number of cohabitation. Nextly,divorce becomes more socially acceptable and the increasing divorce rates led the normalisation of divorce as a good means to deal with unhappy marriage indicated by Cockett&Tripp. Some people argued that a decilne in nuclear family meaned a breakdown of tranditional values on marriage and love. But in fact,because some couples expect too much on the marriage,they are less likely to bear the unhappiness and easy to divorce or choose cohabitation as the alternative from the view of Fletcher&Parsons. Another similar view which see overloading marriage lead to the breakdown of nuclear family because of the over-dependence and too much demand of emotion support is cited by Coontz.What's more,the changes of social policy also affect the family structure very much. For example,government provides lots of welfare benefits to single mothers which encourages women to divorce. Besides,the simplified procedure of divorce made it easier and quicker to separate from the partners such as the Divorce Reform Act. Lastly,both the Act of Parliament in 2002 which made it legal for same-sex couples to adopt children and the Civil Partnership Act in UK in 2005 which gave identical rights to same-sex couples to marry increase the number of same-sex family. However,although there is an increasing trend in family diversity and it's supported by Postmodernest like Stacey who viewed it as suitable to the changing society to meet the demands of different kinds of people,the changes may have been exaggerated suggested by Somevill in the item B and some functionalists like Chester. Even though the increase in family types is obvious,the nuclear family remains the dominant family structure. Furthermore,Chester pointed out that the nuclear family is becoming more symmetrical (Willmott&Young) which fits the society better than before.
Sociology homework: Family and households
a) Explain what is meant by the expressive role?
As the name indicates,expressive role is acted by people who are always and more likely to convey the feelings of them which can be seen as emotional support. Therefore,expressive role always stands for the female who stay at home and contribute to the well-being of the relationship in the family. From http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/soc/courses/soc2r3/sf/parsons.htm,expressive role=woman=inside family(tension management and child socialisation).
b) Suggest two ways in which 'family life may have a harmful effect on women
'1)unpaid housework 2)domestic violence
c) Suggests three reasons for the decrease in the death rate since the 1900
1)An improvement in health service.2)A reduction in poverty.3)Increased income and living standards.
d) Examine the ways in which childhood can be said to be socially constructed.
Something that is socially constructed means it is constructed by social meanings and definitions of the society. As Philip Aries describes,the concept of childhood didn't exist in medieval until the 16th century when the upper class family sent their children to schools to get education that children began to be separated with adults. Afterwards,the boundary between adults and children is more clear that in the 19th century,there were some laws that "employment of children is banned and education is compulsory" which shows the separation of children from the adult settings and the different legal status. As the society's value and actions of children change,the childhood also changes. Then is followed by 1989 that the Children Act firstly outlined children's rights and aimed to protect them. For example,Bukatka and Daehler pointed out that the marriage of children under 12 is prohibited. Besides,the Child Support Agency force the absent parents to pay and finance. Then,we can see that children receive really big attention from the society nowadays. Furthermore,we can use the evidende of cross-culture childhood. Different culture and social values will affect the childhood lifeas they are socially constructed. For instance,Asian family always try hard to protect the children whereas children from the Pacific island of Tikopia are allowed to use tools themselves to do some dangerous tasks if they felt ready. However,childhood is not socially constructed all the time. It is said by Nick Lee that the adulthood becomes unstable and therefore reduces the control on the children. This led to the a change in the social construction of childhood and children's rights are increasing. Although it is argued by Neil Postman that the media is breaking down the boundaries between adults and children which may lead to the disappearance of childhood,correct education and displine by parents and teachers can guide the children and hold on their world.
e) Use material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm.(not finished till tomorrow)
As the name indicates,expressive role is acted by people who are always and more likely to convey the feelings of them which can be seen as emotional support. Therefore,expressive role always stands for the female who stay at home and contribute to the well-being of the relationship in the family. From http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/soc/courses/soc2r3/sf/parsons.htm,expressive role=woman=inside family(tension management and child socialisation).
b) Suggest two ways in which 'family life may have a harmful effect on women
'1)unpaid housework 2)domestic violence
c) Suggests three reasons for the decrease in the death rate since the 1900
1)An improvement in health service.2)A reduction in poverty.3)Increased income and living standards.
d) Examine the ways in which childhood can be said to be socially constructed.
Something that is socially constructed means it is constructed by social meanings and definitions of the society. As Philip Aries describes,the concept of childhood didn't exist in medieval until the 16th century when the upper class family sent their children to schools to get education that children began to be separated with adults. Afterwards,the boundary between adults and children is more clear that in the 19th century,there were some laws that "employment of children is banned and education is compulsory" which shows the separation of children from the adult settings and the different legal status. As the society's value and actions of children change,the childhood also changes. Then is followed by 1989 that the Children Act firstly outlined children's rights and aimed to protect them. For example,Bukatka and Daehler pointed out that the marriage of children under 12 is prohibited. Besides,the Child Support Agency force the absent parents to pay and finance. Then,we can see that children receive really big attention from the society nowadays. Furthermore,we can use the evidende of cross-culture childhood. Different culture and social values will affect the childhood lifeas they are socially constructed. For instance,Asian family always try hard to protect the children whereas children from the Pacific island of Tikopia are allowed to use tools themselves to do some dangerous tasks if they felt ready. However,childhood is not socially constructed all the time. It is said by Nick Lee that the adulthood becomes unstable and therefore reduces the control on the children. This led to the a change in the social construction of childhood and children's rights are increasing. Although it is argued by Neil Postman that the media is breaking down the boundaries between adults and children which may lead to the disappearance of childhood,correct education and displine by parents and teachers can guide the children and hold on their world.
e) Use material from Item 2B and elsewhere, assess the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm.(not finished till tomorrow)
Wednesday, 25 March 2009
Sociological expanations of the different educational achievements(important notes>_<)
Generally,we can divide the explanations into 3 parts: Social class,ethnicity and gender from factors inside and outside schools.
Social class:
-outside: 1.material deprivation:A lack of money will lead to inadequate studing resources like textbooks,computor access. Besides,the living and studing condition will not suitable for students which may make them uncomfortable or even cause illness and absenteeism from school. Therefor,a lot of researchers gave evidence and explanations:
1) Halsey(1980): found that the most important facor preventing working-class students continuing school was a lack of financial support.
2) Douglas(1964): stated that children living in unsatisfactory condition didn't do well in tests compared to kids from comfortable backgrounds.
3) Phillips(2001): showed that the "socially excluded" pupils are not simply poor but the consequence of family attitudes and values that are anti-education and a system that both encourages dependency and undermines individual responsibilities.
2.home fators and parental interest:1) Douglas saw parental interest and support as the most important factor affecting pupils' progress. 2) Reay argued that unlike working-class parents, many middle-school parents especially mothers,invest "emotional labour" in their children'education.
3.language differences: the speech patterns of different families will affect the children's achievements. Bernstein identified two codes-restricted and elaborated codes. He thought that middle-class students have advantages for that elaborated codes are the language of education. However, Labov argued that the restricted codes are just different not inadequate.
4.culture capital: According to Bourdieu,inequalities in power and wealth in society account for the inequalities in educational achievements. He argued that the children have been socialised into the dominat culture which will always exclude the working-class students and enable them to fail in the exams and self-elimination.
5.positional theory: Marxist sociologist Boudon argued that educational inequality is inevitable because of social stratification. Students start schools from very different positions,depending on their social class.
-inside school: Firstly, labelling and self-fulfilling prophency: 1) Becker: said that teachers tended to see middle-class students as closer to ideal. 2) Keddie: found that teachers social class and streaming are closely linked that working-class students are more likely from lower streams. 3) Ball: Teachers had high expectations of pupils from top bands which are usually middle-class and taught them in different ways. Secondly,attitudes of children themselves.
1) Sugarman: The pupils from manual backgrounds lived for immediate grafitication rather than deferred grafitication.
2) Hyman: the values of the working-class students are self-imposed barrier to improving their position that working-class tend to place a low value on education.
3) Feinstein found that social class continued to have a significant impact on educational achievement and therefore,redistributive policies like Sure Start should carry on throughout a student's entire education.
Gender: Colley found that there're still significant gender differences remaining in option choices despite the National Curriculum.
-outside: 1. changes in attitudes: Sue Sharpe found that girls are more confident and independent that they aim at carrers and qualifications. 2.Boys are physically active while girls are more likely to spend their time reading. 3.The feminist movement caused a change in female expectations. 4.The change in labour market like an increase in service-sector jobs has enhanced the opprtunity for women. Ulrich Beck argued that women are leading the move towards the individualised self that they are setting the pace for change. 5. Changes in the female-handed family in which children lack the role model of fathers and that will threaten tranditional masculine identities in terms of Jackson.
-inside: 1.Laddish behaviour: Francis found that Laddish Behaviour in the school and anti-school attitudes of boys has been seen as a means of off-setting generally poor levels of esteem
they get from teachers and girls. 2. The introduction of National Curriculum ensured the equal subjects for boys and girls. 3.Mitsos and Browne said teaching has been feminised that women are more likely to teach in the classroom which gives girls positive role models. 4. Textbooke and resources. 5.The quality of interaction with teachers is different from boys and girls that girls are more likely to talk about homework and study according to Swann&Graddol. 5. Jackson said that schools tended to label boys negatively and may leads to self-fulfilling prophency. 6.Willis found out the anti-school subculture by lads that they reject school,mess up the classroom and see education as uesless.
Ethnicity:
-outside: 1. Racism:Victimisation studies indicate that Asians are 50 times more likely to be the victims of a racist attack than white people. 2. Cultural deprivation: Afro-Caribbean home life is more stressful with high proportion of lone families that Pryce claimed that family among West Indians was turbulent while Asian families gives positive resources for their children.
3. language difference: Labelling theorists said that the dialects or having accent might influence the expectations of teachers. However,Driver and Ballard found Asian students whose English is not the first language are also good at English. 4.social class: The Swan Report found that social economic status was a factor in the low levels of achievement of Afro-Caribbean backgrounds.
-inside: 1.curriculum bias: The national curriculun doesn't include the history of black people and foreigh languages taught are always European. 2.Teacher expectation: According to Gillborn,teachers tend to lable the black negatively but have high expectations of Asian students. Besides,Coard said that the black students are made to feel inferior in British schools.
3. Pupil exclusions: Statistics indicate that all pupil exclusions have risen markedly since 1980s but Afro-Carebbean are over-represented.
Social class:
-outside: 1.material deprivation:A lack of money will lead to inadequate studing resources like textbooks,computor access. Besides,the living and studing condition will not suitable for students which may make them uncomfortable or even cause illness and absenteeism from school. Therefor,a lot of researchers gave evidence and explanations:
1) Halsey(1980): found that the most important facor preventing working-class students continuing school was a lack of financial support.
2) Douglas(1964): stated that children living in unsatisfactory condition didn't do well in tests compared to kids from comfortable backgrounds.
3) Phillips(2001): showed that the "socially excluded" pupils are not simply poor but the consequence of family attitudes and values that are anti-education and a system that both encourages dependency and undermines individual responsibilities.
2.home fators and parental interest:1) Douglas saw parental interest and support as the most important factor affecting pupils' progress. 2) Reay argued that unlike working-class parents, many middle-school parents especially mothers,invest "emotional labour" in their children'education.
3.language differences: the speech patterns of different families will affect the children's achievements. Bernstein identified two codes-restricted and elaborated codes. He thought that middle-class students have advantages for that elaborated codes are the language of education. However, Labov argued that the restricted codes are just different not inadequate.
4.culture capital: According to Bourdieu,inequalities in power and wealth in society account for the inequalities in educational achievements. He argued that the children have been socialised into the dominat culture which will always exclude the working-class students and enable them to fail in the exams and self-elimination.
5.positional theory: Marxist sociologist Boudon argued that educational inequality is inevitable because of social stratification. Students start schools from very different positions,depending on their social class.
-inside school: Firstly, labelling and self-fulfilling prophency: 1) Becker: said that teachers tended to see middle-class students as closer to ideal. 2) Keddie: found that teachers social class and streaming are closely linked that working-class students are more likely from lower streams. 3) Ball: Teachers had high expectations of pupils from top bands which are usually middle-class and taught them in different ways. Secondly,attitudes of children themselves.
1) Sugarman: The pupils from manual backgrounds lived for immediate grafitication rather than deferred grafitication.
2) Hyman: the values of the working-class students are self-imposed barrier to improving their position that working-class tend to place a low value on education.
3) Feinstein found that social class continued to have a significant impact on educational achievement and therefore,redistributive policies like Sure Start should carry on throughout a student's entire education.
Gender: Colley found that there're still significant gender differences remaining in option choices despite the National Curriculum.
-outside: 1. changes in attitudes: Sue Sharpe found that girls are more confident and independent that they aim at carrers and qualifications. 2.Boys are physically active while girls are more likely to spend their time reading. 3.The feminist movement caused a change in female expectations. 4.The change in labour market like an increase in service-sector jobs has enhanced the opprtunity for women. Ulrich Beck argued that women are leading the move towards the individualised self that they are setting the pace for change. 5. Changes in the female-handed family in which children lack the role model of fathers and that will threaten tranditional masculine identities in terms of Jackson.
-inside: 1.Laddish behaviour: Francis found that Laddish Behaviour in the school and anti-school attitudes of boys has been seen as a means of off-setting generally poor levels of esteem
they get from teachers and girls. 2. The introduction of National Curriculum ensured the equal subjects for boys and girls. 3.Mitsos and Browne said teaching has been feminised that women are more likely to teach in the classroom which gives girls positive role models. 4. Textbooke and resources. 5.The quality of interaction with teachers is different from boys and girls that girls are more likely to talk about homework and study according to Swann&Graddol. 5. Jackson said that schools tended to label boys negatively and may leads to self-fulfilling prophency. 6.Willis found out the anti-school subculture by lads that they reject school,mess up the classroom and see education as uesless.
Ethnicity:
-outside: 1. Racism:Victimisation studies indicate that Asians are 50 times more likely to be the victims of a racist attack than white people. 2. Cultural deprivation: Afro-Caribbean home life is more stressful with high proportion of lone families that Pryce claimed that family among West Indians was turbulent while Asian families gives positive resources for their children.
3. language difference: Labelling theorists said that the dialects or having accent might influence the expectations of teachers. However,Driver and Ballard found Asian students whose English is not the first language are also good at English. 4.social class: The Swan Report found that social economic status was a factor in the low levels of achievement of Afro-Caribbean backgrounds.
-inside: 1.curriculum bias: The national curriculun doesn't include the history of black people and foreigh languages taught are always European. 2.Teacher expectation: According to Gillborn,teachers tend to lable the black negatively but have high expectations of Asian students. Besides,Coard said that the black students are made to feel inferior in British schools.
3. Pupil exclusions: Statistics indicate that all pupil exclusions have risen markedly since 1980s but Afro-Carebbean are over-represented.
Tuesday, 24 March 2009
Note 13-- National income
National income is the income earned by people in an economy that measures the money value of the flow of output of goods and services produced within an economy over a period of time(always remember the time) and is generated through the production.
When we measure the national income,we will always talk about 3 accounts--output,spending and income. They are equal when calculating the gross domestic production whcih means the total output produced in an economy over a period of time. Therefore, National Output = National Expenditure (Aggregate Demand) = National Income.
1. Generally,the national income can be counted by C + I + G + (X-M) the same as the aggregate demand. I think it is because the output and income,expengditure are linked to the demand.
2.Income from people employment and in self-employment +Profits of private sector companies +Rent income from land= Gross Domestic product
p.s: Some items can't be included like:
1)Transfer payments are not included because transfer payments are money from one group to the other that will not be produced by production. e.g. the state pension paid to retired people,income support paid to families on low incomes and the Jobseekers’ Allowance .
2)Informal economy: In this economy,most of the economic activities are not legal or avoid the tax registerred to the authority that will attract more consumers and more income.
3.When we are looking at the output in th economy,the value added tax is very influential for that GDP adds together the value of output produced by each of the productive sectors and may cause a decline in output. Value added is the increase in the value of a product at each successive stage of the production process in order to avoid the problems of double-counting the value of intermediate inputs.
Therefore,there are some problems when measure the national income:
1)Statistics will be very complicated that it's difficult to organise and interpret.
2)Informal economy: Some output may be hidden to avoid tax.
3)Home production: Some products are made and consumed by people themselves rather than selling them to earn income,such as vegetables.
Lastly,we can refer to the gross domestic production and gross national production as GNP = GDP + Net property income from abroad ( interest, profits and dividends coming into the UK from our assets owned )
When we measure the national income,we will always talk about 3 accounts--output,spending and income. They are equal when calculating the gross domestic production whcih means the total output produced in an economy over a period of time. Therefore, National Output = National Expenditure (Aggregate Demand) = National Income.
1. Generally,the national income can be counted by C + I + G + (X-M) the same as the aggregate demand. I think it is because the output and income,expengditure are linked to the demand.
2.Income from people employment and in self-employment +Profits of private sector companies +Rent income from land= Gross Domestic product
p.s: Some items can't be included like:
1)Transfer payments are not included because transfer payments are money from one group to the other that will not be produced by production. e.g. the state pension paid to retired people,income support paid to families on low incomes and the Jobseekers’ Allowance .
2)Informal economy: In this economy,most of the economic activities are not legal or avoid the tax registerred to the authority that will attract more consumers and more income.
3.When we are looking at the output in th economy,the value added tax is very influential for that GDP adds together the value of output produced by each of the productive sectors and may cause a decline in output. Value added is the increase in the value of a product at each successive stage of the production process in order to avoid the problems of double-counting the value of intermediate inputs.
Therefore,there are some problems when measure the national income:
1)Statistics will be very complicated that it's difficult to organise and interpret.
2)Informal economy: Some output may be hidden to avoid tax.
3)Home production: Some products are made and consumed by people themselves rather than selling them to earn income,such as vegetables.
Lastly,we can refer to the gross domestic production and gross national production as GNP = GDP + Net property income from abroad ( interest, profits and dividends coming into the UK from our assets owned )
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